This Earth of Mankind

“On one occasion, one of the girls who sat beside me, Vera, pinched my thigh as hard as she could, as a way of getting acquainted. I screamed in pain.

Mr. Rooseboom’s eyes popped out frighteningly, and he yelled:

‘Quiet, you monk … Minke!’

From that day, everyone in the class called me Minke, the one and only Native. My teachers followed suit. Then my friends from all the other classes. Also from outside school.”

The protagonist’s real name is not given anywhere in the narrative. He reveals that he comes from ancient Javanese royalty, though he does not want to be defined by this. He does not want to be pigeonholed by either the Dutch, some of whom expect him to become an important bridge between European and Javanese society, or the Natives, who take for granted that he will become a regional governmental authority. As part of this resistance, he strictly identifies himself as “Minke”—the gibberish half-curse bestowed upon him by an irritated teacher. When Dutch recluse Herman Mellema later refers to Minke as a monkey, Toer implies that Minke literally means “monkey.”

“‘Annelies has told me, Nyo—don’t be afraid—is it true, you kissed her?’

Even a flash of lightning would not have startled me so greatly. […]

“‘So it’s true. Now Minke, kiss Annelies in front of me. So that I may know that my daughter does not lie.’

I trembled. Yet I could not resist her command. And I kissed Annelies on the cheek.

“‘I’m proud, Nyo, that it’s you who kissed her. Go home now.’”

Virtually everything about Wonokromo impresses Minke—who is referred to in this quote as Nyo, a title of respect usually reserved for Dutch youth—though most surprising of all to him are mother and daughter Nyai and Annelies who run a successful business. He does not understand Annelies’s initial reaction to his impetuous kiss, thinking Nyai will ban him from the plantation. Instead, Nyai is thrilled and Annelies demands that he return as soon as possible. Nyai’s pleasure at Minke’s affection toward her daughter is not only because she sees goodness and potential in Minke but particularly because, like herself, Minke is a Native who thrives in Dutch society.

“…such indeed was the moral level of the families of nyais: low, dirty, without culture, moved only by lust. They were the families of prostitutes; they were people without character, destined to sink into nothingness, leaving no trace. But did this popular judgment apply to Nyai Ontosoroh? This was what was confusing me. No, she wasn’t like that.”

This quote from Minke reveals his initial opinion of nyais, Native Javanese concubines taken by European overlords. Nyai persuades Minke to call her Mama, as he considers calling her Nyai inappropriate. His experience with Nyai contradicts everything he assumed about concubines. There is an ironic contrast between Annelies and Minke at this point in the narrative. Intentionally sheltered by her mother, Annelies knows little about relationships or the world beyond Wonokromo, yet is capable and literate. Minke is educated at a prestigious European school, but has been sheltered from the world of his Native ancestors and Javanese like those who perform manual labor at Wonokromo.

“Love is beautiful, Minke, very, very beautiful, but perhaps disaster follows. You must dare to face its consequences.”

This quote is spoken by French veteran Jean Marais, Minke’s furniture business partner. Jean shares the story of the murder of the Native mother of his child, May (by her own brother). Confused about his feelings for Annelies, Minke approaches Jean, whose wisdom he trusts. Telling Minke to visit Annelies and determine if he truly loves her, Jean speaks this quote, which turns out to be ironically prophetic: Minke and Annelies fall deeply in love and wed, only to be tragically separated.

“‘So you’re our first real guest. And you’re so close to us, so good to Mama and also to me.’ Her voiced faded into quietness, no longer childlike. ‘See, I’m ready to tell you everything, Mas. And you mustn’t feel restrained about anything here either. You’ll be the good friend of us both.’ She became very sentimental. ‘Everything I own is yours, Mas. You are free to do as you wish in this house.”

This conversation between Annelies and Minke takes place during their second meeting, when Minke agrees to live at Wonokromo. In addition to a degree of hospitality he has never experienced, Minke has never encountered anyone so completely, genuinely candid. While he is slower to share his personal information, he finds that Nyai has an uncanny ability to sense his thoughts and intentions, commenting on them before he himself admits them. As reserved as Minke strives to be, he cannot refuse anything that Annelies asks of him. From the beginning of their relationship, there is intimacy.

“Shhh! Pity is only for those who are conscious of their condition. You need pity, not him—the child of someone like him. Ann, you must understand: he is no longer a human being. The closer you are to him, the more your life is threatened by ruin. He has become an animal who can no longer tell good from evil. He’s no longer capable of any service to his fellow human beings. It’s over, don’t ask about him again.”

This quote is Nyai’s advice to Annelies as they lie in bed together, discussing Herman’s interruption of their meal with Minke. Nyai’s comments reveal a keen insight into the human psyche, something Minke also recognizes in her, writes about, and yearns to understand. Underlying Nyai’s realistic outlook is the powerful drive of a survivor, acquired in her early teens, along with the unwavering commitment to make her daughter’s life better than hers (especially in regards to choosing her own husband).

“…that was my situation, Ann, the situation of all young girls then—they could do nothing else but wait for a man to take them from the house, to who knows where, as wife number who knows what, first or fourth. My father and my father alone determined everything. […] The girl never knew beforehand whether the man would be young or old. And once married, the girl had to serve this man, whom she had never met before, with all her body and soul, all her life, until she died or until he became bored and got rid of her. There was no other way, no choice.”

Here, Nyai describes the circumstances faced by young Native girls in Java before describing her own story in which her father bartered her to Herman as a concubine. Her efforts to acquire property and independence have all been to spare her daughter from having a similar experience. As an Indo—a multiracial individual of European heritage—Annelies should be able to avoid such a fate by law. However, much like her mother, Annelies’s Pure-Blood Dutch half-brother, Maurits, has absolute control of her life and takes her away from her home.

“‘Mr. Mellema.’ Maurits spoke again in Dutch, still ignoring me. ‘Even if you married this nyai, this concubine, in a legal marriage, she is still not Christian. She’s an unbeliever! And even if she were Christian, you, sir, are still more rotten than Amelia Mellema-Hammers, more rotten than all the rottenness you accused my mother of. You, sir, have committed a blood sin, a crime against blood! Mixing Christian European blood with colored, Native, unbeliever’s blood! A sin never to be forgiven!’

‘Go!’ I roared. He still ignored me.”

Nyai recounts the story of Herman’s oldest child, Maurits, hunting him down and uncovering his life post-leaving the Netherlands. This quote demonstrates the Pervasive Prejudice of the Dutch toward the Native Javanese. Maurits ignores Nyai, demonstrating his bias against her because she is a Native, an unmarried concubine, a non-Christian, and a woman. For all these reasons, Maurits considers her unworthy of any recognition.

“Ah! This earth of mankind. Sometimes a tobacco plantation would appear, shrink, and disappear, swept away in the train’s acceleration. Appear again, shrink again, disappear again. And paddy fields and paddy fields and paddy fields, unirrigated, planted with crops, but no rice, almost ready to be harvested. And the train crawled on slowly, spouting thick black and dusty and sparking smoke. Why wasn’t it England that controlled all this? Why Holland? And Japan? What about Japan?”

Minke utters the title of the novel, This Earth of Mankind, several times throughout the narrative, always when he is struggling to understand the motives of others. As he observes some fertile fields, he thinks of the different colonizing nations that have controlled the land, recognizing that it no longer belongs to its ancestral inhabitants. He reflects on this as he rides, against his will, to an unknown destination for a purpose of which he is unaware. Toer implies that Minke embodies Java itself, a rich resource under the control and for the benefit of others.

“Indeed the civil service reports were something that never attracted my interest: appointments, dismissals, transfers, pensions. Nothing to do with me. The world of priyayi, Javanese aristocrats who became administrators for the Dutch colonial bureaucracy, was not my world. Who cared if the devil was appointed smallpox official or was sacked dishonorably because of embezzlement? My world was not rank and position, wage and embezzlement. My world was this earth of mankind and its problems.”

These thoughts rage through Minke’s head as he kneels, face to the floor, before his estranged father, recently appointed the bupati—or local administrator—of a community. Throughout the narrative, Minke often hears people predict that he, too, will become a bupati, an idea he detests. Though he feigns obedience, he wants to ignore the insignificance of bupati concerns and address this earth of mankind. Ironically, Minke’s inner conflict pits two colonial visions of himself against each other: a local bureaucrat officially authorized by the Dutch and a journalist writing for the elite Dutch reader.

“Minke, if you maintain your present attitude, I mean your European attitude, not a slavish attitude like most Javanese, perhaps one day you will be an important person. You can become a leader, a pioneer, an example to your race. You, as an educated person, surely understand that your people have fallen very low, humiliatingly low. Europeans can no longer do anything to help. The Natives themselves must begin to do something.”

This racist quote is spoken by Herbert de la Croix, the “assistant resident,” a colonial lieutenant governor of the area around Minke’s hometown. While he is impressed with Minke’s intelligence and learning, his words reveal the Pervasive Prejudice of the Dutch about the abilities and status of the Javanese people. As supportive as he intends to be, Herbert does not grasp that the colonial treatment of the Dutch has prevented the Natives from making the social progress to which he refers. For example, Minke’s outcry over the kidnapping of his wife Annelies does not influence the Dutch authorities.

“‘When I changed hands to become the property of Babah Ah Tjong at a price equivalent to ten Singapore dollars, he gave me half a guilder and said in broken Japanese:

‘Actually I wanted to make you my concubine.’

‘It was such a disappointment to hear those words. A concubine’s life was not so harsh as a prostitute’s; you could live reasonably, and were freer than the wife of a Japanese youth who hoped for capital from his future woman. What could be done? This accursed disease had taken root with me.’”

This quote is the courtroom testimony of Maiko, a prostitute of Japanese origin who was used exclusively by Herman and his son Robert M. at Babah Ah Tjong’s brothel. She is disappointed upon hearing of Babah’s desire to make her his concubine because, being infected with a deadly form of syphilis, she knows he will eventually sell her, as she has been sold for lower and lower prices across Pacific Rim nations. The treatment of prostitutes as chattel reinforces the Entrenched Misogyny found throughout the narrative.

“I rested my face on the table. I tried to absorb all of Miriam’s letter, trying to ensure I would never forget it as long as I lived. Friendship is indeed beautiful. And my headache slipped away and slipped away, and then disappeared altogether, who knows to where. Miriam, you did not just send a letter. More than that: a charm to rid me of tension. […]

‘Young Master!’ I raised my head. On seeing the person in front of me the tree in my head returned, spreading its roots and seedlings. But now more vigorously. Him. Darsam.”

This quote describes a culmination of forces working to claim Minke’s focus and commitment. Though he dismisses his parents’ desire for him to fulfill a traditional Javanese governmental role, he does listen to his mother’s criticism of him favoring European culture over his Native roots. Minke fears that Robert M. will murder him—that is, until Miriam de la Croix’s letter reminds him of her own family’s expectations that he might become the first Native to hold a parliamentary seat, a thought that eases his headache. Then, he sees Darsam and receives a letter from Nyai summoning him to care for Annelies, which turns out to be the one call he cannot resist.

“‘You have studied European civilization, so you no doubt know the difference between the attitudes of European and Native men towards women. If you are the same as most other Natives, this child will not live long. Quite frankly she could fall into a living death. If it came about, if I say, you married her, would you take a second woman at some later stage? […] So you will marry her and will not take a second woman.’ […]

I had never intended to take more than one wife. I always remembered the words of my grandmother: Every man who takes more than one wife is a liar, and will certainly become a liar whether he wants to or not.”

This conversation takes place between Dr. Martinet and Minke as they wait for an ill Annelies to wake. Martinet blames her condition on Minke and tells him that he is now her primary caregiver, explicitly saying she will die if he fails to coddle her. Minke is compliant despite having told various individuals, including the doctor, that he does not want to commit to anything but his personal freedom. In this respect, Minke again embodies his native land: Many outside interests pull him in different directions, none of his own making. As Java was militarily colonized, he is emotionally colonized.

“My grandfather had taught me that if you believe you will be successful in all your studies, then you will be successful; if you think of all study as easy, all will be easy. Be afraid of no kind of study, because such fear is the original ignorance that will make you ignorant of everything.”

Returning to school after taking several weeks off, Minke remembers his grandfather’s advice. Toer writes that only a brilliant student like Minke can find all studies easy and achieve universal success. Minke’s precocious abilities gain him both positive and negative attention. Understanding he is the focus of the higher classes’ attention, Minke is judicious when answering their challenges. However, as his grandfather proclaims, he is not fearful of the truth and never misrepresents or lies about his beliefs.

“Europeans who feel themselves to be a hundred percent pure do not really know how much Asian blood flows in their veins. From your study of history, you will all know that hundreds of years ago, many different Asian armies attacked Europe, and left descendants—Arabs, Turkish, Mongol—and this was after Rome had become Christian! And don’t any of you forget that under the Roman empire, the Asian blood, and perhaps even African, of those citizens of Rome from various Asian nations—Arabs, jews, Syrian, Egyptians—now mingles with the blood of Europeans.”

While leading her Saturday open discussion class, Miss Magda Peters reads an article secretly written by Minke that discusses issues of class and race. Robert S. identifies Minke as the author to embarrass him, causing a stir among the students. Magda proceeds to support Minke, explaining that no one is truly a Pure-Blood, as the Dutch characterize themselves. Despite Minke and Magda speaking truth, in true colonial fashion, the director of the school ceases the discussion, finds a reason to expel Minke, and gives Magda the opportunity to resign before being fired. Like other examples in the narrative, purveyors of colonial rule will not stand to be confronted with truth.

“Ya Allah, in truth, the trials and tests You have made me undergo have been too great for someone as young as me. My situation has forced me to grapple with questions that should not yet be my concern. Give me the strength to face every trial and test You confront me with, just as You have done with others before me…I am not insane. And neither am I a criminal. And never will be.”

Though he occasionally addresses Allah throughout the narrative, this quote is Minke’s only prayer. In it, he admits he grapples with questions beyond his understanding. The prayer is ironic in that Nyai was forced to deal with even greater life-and-death challenges at a younger age than Minke, as do many underprivileged people struggling against forces beyond their control. Unlike a young Nyai, Minke has the resources and education to navigate most forces. In fact, his actual problems are the direct results of the special treatment he has received.

“Since I was little I had lived with grandfather, so father was really no more than a title to me. Every time I met him, all he wanted was for his authority as a father to be acknowledged. […] If Father withdraws me from H.B.S., that too is his right. […] Only it was not Father who guaranteed me, but Grandfather. And it was no certain that the school director would accept Father’s request.”

As Minke feared, involving the police in the affairs of Nyai’s family would result in condemnation and unfounded speculation. Because his father, a new bupati, is hypersensitive to any negative attention from official sources, he has his wife and Minke’s older brother write letters castigating him. Minke is unconcerned, believing those at school have it out for him anyway, and his real future lies in following his grandfather’s vision for him. To a greater extent than in the previous crises, Minke stands up for himself, facing down his critics and acquiring a supportive readership; in turn, his connection to the school grows all the more tenuous.

“Between Mr. Mellema and me there were only the ties of slavery and they were never challenged by the law. Between Mr. Minke and my daughter there is a mutual and pure love. […] Europeans are able to purchase Native women just as I was purchased. Are such purchases truer than pure love? If Europeans can act in these ways because of their superior wealth and power, why is it that a Native must become the target of scorn and insults because of pure love?”

After prosecutors expose the relationship between Minke and Annelies in court, Nyai defends them in Dutch, pointing out the inequalities experienced by Natives—and particularly Native women—at the hands of Europeans. The court struggles to silence her, as she speaks truth. The Dutch practice of keeping Native concubines, who have no rights as they are women of no European heritage, is clearly human trafficking and a form of slavery.

“If you ever run away from something, your schooling and your education will have been in vain, because my son would then be only a criminal. […] Don’t run from your own problems, because to resolve them is your right as a man. Seize the beautiful flowers, because they are there for him who is manly. And don’t become a criminal in affairs of love either—one who conquers a woman with the jingle of coins, the sparkle of wealth and rank. Such a man is also a criminal, while the woman is a prostitute.”

Here, Minke’s mother persuades him to stand up for himself in the face of the criticism he has received. She counsels him to remember the principles she instilled. Her words call back to his own words to her when she criticized him at his father’s instillation: He said that his parents wanted him educated, and now they balk at the direction in which education has taken him. The essence of her message is that maturity is what drives real learning. It is ironic that a Native woman, who is assumed to be inferior by society due to her race and gender, imparts this wisdom.

“‘…if you were Javanese, you would be able to write in Javanese. You write in Dutch, Gus, because you no longer want to be Javanese. You write for Dutch people. Why do you honor them so greatly? They drink and eat from Javanese earth. You do not eat and drink from the Dutch earth. Why, why do you honor them so greatly?’

‘Yes, Mother.’

‘What are you yessing? Your ancestors, the kings of Java, all wrote in Javanese. Are you perhaps ashamed of being Javanese? Ashamed that you’re not Dutch?’”

This quote is part of the extended conversation between Minke and his mother as she dresses him for his wedding feast. She refers to him as Gus, not a name but an expression of endearment. She alludes to Minke’s personal struggle—that between his Allegiance to the Netherlands or Java. Minke’s academic achievements are all written in Dutch; he cannot sufficiently write in Javanese or Malay, the Indonesian national language. Rather, he has trained to become a literary giant in a land where he cannot be a citizen.

“I had never harmed another’s reputation. I had never done away with other people’s goods. I had never dealt in contraband. How was I to defend myself from such arbitrary judgments? Perhaps only Jean Maris taught the truth on this matter: People must be just and fair, starting with what they thought. It turned out that the Europeans themselves, and not just any Europeans either, were the ones who were unjust.”

This quote comprises Minke’s reaction when his request to travel to the Netherlands to continue his education is refused on grounds of morality. His renewed awareness of the hypocrisy of his Dutch overlords highlights the conflict that his mother repeatedly addresses—Minke’s Allegiance. This sets the stage for the three subsequent novels in the Buru Quartet, which focus on Minke’s dealings with his Javanese heritage.

“I understood at that moment: we would be defeated and our only duty now was to fight back, to defend our rights, until we were unable to fight back any longer—like the Acehnese in their fight against the Dutch according to Jean Marais’s story. Mama also bowed her head. She more than just understood. She was going to lose everything: her child, her business, all the fruits of her efforts, and her personal property.”

Minke’s thoughts come after an initial conversation with the family lawyer, who examines the legal documents asserting Maurits’s legal claims upon the death of his father, Herman. Throughout the narrative, Minke wrestles with whether he is going to act as the Native he is or in service of the Dutch who educated him. However, Natives like him and Nyai clearly don’t have rights within the Dutch legal system, making the impersonal aspect of Allegiance irrelevant. To Europeans, Minke will always be a clever non-person.