The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America

The term “hybrid war” designation the combination of conventional military force with cyber warfare, disinformation, and economic manipulation. This approach is designed to destabilize and undermine the political and social structures of target nations without resorting solely to overt military aggression. Snyder illustrates how this strategy was notably executed during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, where it served to confuse the international community, manipulate public opinion, and achieve strategic goals without full-scale military confrontation.

Kleptocracy, from the Greek klepto (to steal) and kratos (rule), is a form of government where the ruling class exploits political power to accumulate personal wealth at the expense of the wider population. This system is characterized by widespread corruption, the absence of the rule of law, and the merging of state and private interests. Snyder argues that kleptocracy in Russia stabilizes authoritarian control by allowing elites to enrich themselves through the state’s resources, incentivizing them to maintain the status quo and resist democratic reforms.

Maidan Revolution is the term that designates a significant series of protests in Ukraine during the winter of 2013-2014, which ultimately led to significant political change in the country. This revolution, taking place in Kyiv’s Maidan Nezalezhnosti (the Independence Square, in the centre of Kyiv), began as a demand for closer European integration and evolved into a broader movement against government corruption, abuse of power, and the influence of Russia. Snyder highlights how the Maidan Revolution marked a critical point in Ukraine’s ongoing struggle for democracy. The Maidan Revolution is preceded by the 2004-2005 Orange Revolution.

The term “managed democracy” describes a system where outward forms of democracy, such as elections, are maintained but the outcomes are controlled by a central authority. Snyder applies this concept particularly to modern Russia under Vladimir Putin’s rule, where electoral mechanisms are manipulated to ensure the continuation of power for the ruling elite, while suppressing genuine democratic participation and opposition. Under Russia’s managed democracy, the opposition to Putin’s circle of power and any form of dissent are strictly oppressed.

Snyder uses the politics of eternity to describe the political strategy that exploits and perpetuates a nation’s mythic past to create a perpetual state of victimhood, diverting attention from current issues and failures. Snyder’s central case for this theory is post-1991 Russia. However, he argues that many far-right politicians in Europe and the US, especially those who have links to Russia, use a discourse that relies on the politics of eternity. The use of the politics of eternity relies on the portrayal of external enemies and glorifies a static, idealized history to manipulate public perception and maintain authoritarian control. Snyder argues that this form of governance thrives on the cyclic recurrence of past grievances to justify ongoing authoritarian practices, preventing societal progress and democratic evolution.

The politics of inevitability is one of Snyder’s main theoretical terms in The Road to Unfreedom. The term refers to the belief in a predetermined, unalterable course of progress toward liberal democracy and free-market capitalism, which is thought to be the ultimate outcome for all societies. Snyder critiques this viewpoint as dangerously complacent, suggesting that it blinds societies to the potential risks and alternative political developments that can lead to authoritarianism. He argues that this ideology is prevalent in the West, creating a false sense of security and contributing to a lack of vigilance against threats to democratic institutions.

In Snyder’s work, the principle of succession is a fundamental democratic practice that ensures stable governance through the transfer of power according to established legal and political processes. This principle, Snyder argues, is critical for maintaining the legitimacy and continuity of institutions, preventing power vacuums, avoiding the manipulation of civil society, and ensuring that a state remains resilient in the face of changes in leadership. Snyder contrasts this democratic norm with the practices observed in authoritarian regimes, where succession is often uncertain or manipulated, leading to instability and the erosion of democratic structures.