The Managed Heart

The first chapter explores the concept of emotional labor by comparing two seemingly different types of work: child labor in a 19th-century wallpaper factory and modern flight attendants’ work. She begins with Karl Marx’s analysis of the dehumanizing effects of child labor, wherein employers treated children like machines, highlighting the physical and emotional costs of such exploitation. The author then shifts to the 20th century, examining how airlines train flight attendants to manage their emotions as part of their job.

The author delves into the multifaceted nature of emotional labor by examining three key areas: labor, display, and emotion. She begins by highlighting that modern jobs increasingly require interpersonal skills more than mechanical skills, as Daniel Bell noted in his discussions on postindustrial society. Despite this shift, both critics and supporters of labor studies often overlook the specific demands and de-skilling involved in emotional labor. The author then discusses Erving Goffman’s analysis of face-to-face interactions, which, while illuminating the small rules of social behavior, does not fully address the corporate training and profit motives behind emotional labor.

Additionally, the text touches on the quieter discourse of American social science that studies the definition and management of emotions. The author integrates insights from all three areas (labor, display, and emotion) to comprehensively describe emotional labor, particularly how it impacts workers’ well-being and sense of self. She notes that emotional labor is widespread, and a significant portion of US workers, especially women, have jobs that require managing emotions. This type of labor transcends job categories and is prevalent in various professions, from flight attendants and secretaries to waitstaff and social workers. She points out that while emotional labor is crucial for many professions, it has personal costs, particularly for women who traditionally manage emotions both at work and in private life. The text argues that emotional labor is not exclusive to capitalism; socialist societies also use emotional labor to maintain social order and promote ideals.

The author explains that her research methodology draws on three main sources: student questionnaires from the University of California, Berkeley, which provided insights into personal emotional management; an extensive study of flight attendants at Delta Airlines, which illustrated the public face of emotional labor in a high-demand service industry; and interviews with bill collectors, which offered a contrasting view of negative emotional labor.

Referring to a 19th-century child laborer in an English wallpaper factory and a 20th-century American flight attendant, the author explains how both must mentally detach to survive: the factory worker from physical labor and the flight attendant from emotional labor. She introduces the concept of “feeling rules,” which guide how emotions should be managed in different social contexts. Workplaces formalize these rules, creating a “transmutation of the private use of feeling” (20). This process links private emotional management and public labor demands, often resulting in personal alienation.

The author emphasizes that the unpredictability of modern social life and the cultural celebration of spontaneity create a tension between authentic emotions and the demands of emotional labor. She observes that society’s high regard for “natural” feelings contrasts with the need for an instrumental stance toward emotions in many jobs. This dichotomy is reflected in “robot jokes,” which highlight the dehumanizing effects of emotional labor, reminiscent of George Orwell’s dystopian vision.

This chapter examines how organizations like Delta Airlines train employees to manage their emotions, particularly anger, to ensure professionalism and customer satisfaction. She challenges the traditional “organismic” view, supported by theorists like Charles Darwin, William James, and early Sigmund Freud, which sees emotions as passive biological responses. Instead, she adopts an “interactional” perspective, arguing that social and cultural contexts shape emotions and that they can be actively managed.

The author describes how flight attendants are trained to reframe and manage their emotional responses to challenging passengers, using techniques such as deep breathing, self-talk, and empathy to prevent anger and stress. She refers to examples from Delta’s Recurrent Training classes, in which flight attendants learn to handle difficult situations by altering their emotional responses. For instance, they are encouraged to view difficult passengers as fearful or childlike to reduce their own anger. She emphasizes that this process of emotion management involves internalizing company-defined “feeling rules,” which dictate acceptable emotional responses in the workplace.

Next, the author highlights the broader implications of this emotional management, noting that it often leads to a disconnect between workers’ true feelings and their professional roles. She uses the concept of the “signal function” of emotions, as discussed by Freud, to explain how emotions serve as crucial indicators of our relationship to internal and external events. However, corporate manipulation of these signals can obscure genuine feelings and lead to a sense of alienation. She notes that emotions like anxiety signal danger and help individuals navigate their social world, but corporate training can interfere with these natural signals, prioritizing company interests over personal emotional integrity.

Additionally, the text discusses the challenges of distinguishing between genuine emotions and those manufactured for professional purposes. Both workers and customers must navigate this ambiguity, often questioning the authenticity of emotional expressions in commercial interactions. This constant negotiation contributes to a deeper societal issue in which individuals struggle to identify their “real selves” amid the pervasive influence of corporate emotional management. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the significant personal costs of emotional labor and advocating for a critical examination of how emotions are managed in the workplace.