The Guns of August

Albert is king of Belgium at the time of the German invasion. He refuses to capitulate to the kaiser and the German threat, and his resistance slows the German movement, giving time for the French to prepare. The Belgian resistance frustrates the German army and shows the rest of the world that it can be resisted. This resistance comes at a price: The German army murders villagers and burns villages in their frustration. However, these actions cost Germany dearly as well. The rest of the world hears of the German atrocities, losing them allies and strengthening the spines of those already at war with them.

Sir John French, commander of the British Expeditionary Forces, epitomizes English hesitancy in Tuchman’s framing of events. From the beginning of the war, England cannot decide on its role. It wavers on whether to commit an army at all. It wavers on where and when to send it. It is hesitant about putting its army under the command of another country. After the initial skirmish in Belgium in which the British perform well, French fears losing Sir John French’s troops. Sir John, however, becomes even more hesitant. He interprets an order from higher command to mean he must protect his forces at all costs and thus attempts to retreat from the war. His retreat leaves holes in the French line. When the French counterattack comes, the British army under Sir John is hesitant to fill in the holes, which spoils a potential French victory, thus prolonging the war.

As the Germans near Paris, Gallieni is put in charge of its defenses. Several of the measures he takes help stop the German advance. Gallieni first recognizes German General Von Kluck’s turn away from Paris as an opportunity to attack his flanks. Gallieni’s messages to General Joffre, the commander in chief of the French army, may help Joffre decide either to attack or to attack sooner and not lose the opportunity. Gallieni also mobilizes the city’s taxis to transport troops to the decisive battle, moving around 6,000 men to where they are needed and eventually causing the Germans to retreat, saving Paris and perhaps saving the world from what Tuchman describes as the German threat.

The kaiser embodies Germany’s belief in its superiority but also its weaknesses:

More cosmopolitan and more timid than the archetype Prussian, he had never actually wanted a general war. He wanted greater power, greater prestige, above all more authority in the world’s affairs for Germany but he preferred to obtain them by frightening rather than by fighting other nations (73).

When the war seems unavoidable, Wilhelm hesitates, sending an ultimatum to Russia in an attempt to avoid a war on two fronts. He also sends last-minute messages to Belgium, demanding that it allow the Germans passage, and makes overtures to the Ottoman Empire and even England. However, there is no backing away from the kaiser’s anger. He hates the French. He thinks Germans are superior and should rule the world. He feels the other countries are trying to encircle him, and he blames the late King Edward VII of England for making allies of several of the nations surrounding Germany. He believes the French make fun of him, and he resents that the other countries of the world cannot see German superiority, all of which leads to the war.

Joffre, as supreme commander of the French forces, is often described as imperturbable. He is also a man who allows no weakness. In the first days after being named commander, he relieves dozens of generals of their command for what he perceives as either insubordination or incompetence. After every French loss, he removes a few more. However, as the German armies march through Belgium and enter France, and the French army comes close to losing hope, Joffre remains impassive. Stoic and calm, Joffre listens to his advisors but keeps his own counsel. His quiet stoicism is rewarded when, as the Germans near Paris, his counterattack halts and then forces the retreat of the German forces—the French élan finally rising to throw back the invaders.

Von Kluck plays two pivotal roles in the war. His troops are responsible for much destruction as they march through Belgium. He assassinates the male residents of small villages and then sets the villages on fire, and his atrocities turn the rest of the world against the Germans. They also harden the resolve of the Belgian and French armies. Von Kluck’s second pivotal role comes during his march toward Paris. Thinking the French are in full retreat, Von Kluck follows, meaning to destroy them and win the decisive victory the Germans have planned. However, this exhausts his men, leaving them in no condition to fight, and opens up his flank for the attack from the French army that results in a German retreat. It also gives the French time to regroup and extends the war for another four years.

Moltke is the high military commander of the German army and, like all other German officers, is dedicated to the Schlieffen Plan that outlines the way to a decisive victory. However, Moltke is shaken in the early days of war preparation when Kaiser Wilhelm wants to avoid a war against the Russians. Moltke, in a moment that might have changed history had it gone the opposite way, says that to stop the German advance to the east would be impossible: “Once settled, it cannot be altered” (79). However, Tuchman suggests even the kaiser’s attempt to prevent the war wounded Moltke, leading him to become hesitant and afraid of his own decisions, which caused the German army quite a bit of consternation. His decision to move two divisions to the Russian front might have cost the Germans the war against the French. Though Moltke and the kaiser boast of German superiority, both become hesitant at the worst times, and their reticence slows, delays, and ultimately thwarts a German victory.