The Gift

Mauss describes the exchange of gifts as a situation whereby participants are both obliged to give gifts and to receive them. Here he introduces the idea that everything that exists in a given social system “is there for passing on, and for balancing accounts” (18). These things may be tangible examples of wealth such as jewelry or land, but they may also be embodied in the people of a society such as wives, children and so forth. He attempts to illustrate how there is a continual ebb and flow of “gifts” in a society that reinforces the division of labor, the hierarchy, and the relationship of this group to other groups. The guest is forced to accept gifts of hospitality and food, the host is obliged to present these. Refusal to play your role is a gesture powerful enough to start a war.

Mauss uses the Maori term hau and its associated link with Maori law to describe the symbolic power of gifts. He had determined to analyze cultures that were very different from his own (Polynesian or Melanesian in this case) to identify a core component of all societies regarding the gift exchange as a fundamental concept in economic and legal systems. For this reason, this term is vital for Mauss. It describes the value of a gift that goes beyond its material worth, encapsulating a whole host of meanings that may be specific to that culture. It also helps us to understand why the obligation to reciprocate may be so strong. When a person offers a gift imbued in some way with an essential element of their self, they are literally giving of themselves. To fail to return this gesture, or to hold on to it beyond an expected timeframe, is going against the rules of nature and mortality. By respecting the hau of the gift, and participating respectfully in the exchange of gifts, both the giver and the receiver preserve their honor.

Mauss distinguishes another central theme in his discussion by differentiating between gifts given exchanged amongst people, and gifts given to the gods, i.e., sacrifices (18). He describes how potlatches very often contain elements of sacrifice to the gods to ensure future abundance, protection, wealth, or good fortune. What is interesting here is that even gifts to other people can count here, as people may be considered the representatives of the gods on earth. For example, Shamans may symbolically depict this by wearing particular masks or carrying out particular rituals that illustrate this link. The idea that the gods can be “paid” in some way to ensure one’s good fortune is also part of Mauss’s ideas of “presents to the gods.” Finally, he reintroduces the idea of destruction here, in that destroying something precious can also be interpreted by the gods as a gift—burning effigies or valuable possessions are good examples of this.

Unlike traditional demonstrations, the concept of power in the act of gift exchange and the potlatch is subtle. Niceties are merely a mask for something more agonistic. The act of gift giving is at once hostile as it is intended to maintain peace. Reluctant may be the gift receiver, it is a manner of honor to accept the gift, regardless if it is unwanted or not. The gift receiver represents their tribe and so the entire tribe is on the hook, so to speak, to reciprocate. Failure to do so leads to conflict and possibly war. Thus, gift giving is in essence an art form that requires the gift giver to be calculating, if not transparent about their intentions. There are no mysteries behind the act itself. It is designed to force a contract unto another and in doing so, curry favors, allegiances, and alliances. In the end, this form of power is preferable to acts of direct violence that are associated with theft, conflict, and possibly war. Even if the gift giver may be stronger and suited to defeating a lesser tribe, they still flex their power through gift exchange as it is more beneficial and profitable to them, and to their victims, in the long run. Casualties are all but nonexistent, except for perhaps the ego of the gift receiver for they are in turn put into a position of subjugation by the gift giver.

Mauss highlights destruction as an important facet of power as well. For the gift giver, there is no greater act of generosity or show of strength than to destroy the very things that are coveted by the masses. This becomes evident during the potlatch when items of high value are burned, discarded into the sea, or thrown away like. The latter can be food, precious metals, and in some cultures, even human sacrifice. It is a spectacle designed not only to please the deities whom they worship but equally, to intimidate, enslave (by means of reciprocity), and to bear witness the greatness of the gift-giver’s strength (symbolically of course). It is an act akin to throwing down the gauntlet. The gift receivers, specifically opposing tribes, are thus tested and forced to outdo their hosts in future. It is at once a time of great celebration and one of great consternation for both parties as each continues to try and outdo one another. This cycle of destruction is both wasteful yet economical as it has the effect of maintaining their alliances and hence, peace.