Politics

In Book 4, Aristotle turns his attention away from the constitutions of aristocracy and monarchy and examines the three incorrect constitutions and polity, referred to as “constitutional government” (136). Tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy comprise what Aristotle views as incorrect political approaches. He identifies tyranny as the most problematic. The variance in how offices are managed is due to the diversity within the city itself. Aristotle rejects the assertion that there are only two types of constitutions, claiming this argument does not reflect the range of organizations implemented.

Democracy is defined as a complete rule by many from a single social class, chiefly the lower class. This differs from an oligarchy which is ruled by a small group of wealthy people. Various political constitutions cannot be divided into only these categories. In fact, a city may contain multiple versions of constitutions within itself due to the diversity of groups within a city, including the farming, mechanical, marketing, laborers, and military classes. Since each group has unique needs, democracy and oligarchical constitutions may look different for each. For example, in some democracies, each social class is treated equally. In others, the lower class may have supreme rule over the wealthy class. Similarly, oligarchies vary based upon property qualifications and legacy.

Aristotle describes polity as a mixture of democracy and oligarchy. Polity provides few opportunities for close examination because few governments use this form of constitution. Polity is broken down into three types. The first utilizes a mixture of oligarchical and democratic laws, and the second takes a mean of both. In the third, laws are combined to create new versions.

Aristotle claims that aristocracy is the best form of government. In its truest form, those ruling in the aristocracy are selected based upon their virtue. This contributes to the philosopher’s notion that a government should advance and support a virtuous life, detailed in the theme Politics as a Pathway for Good and Happiness. In his view, aristocracies promote those who are most deserving and who will make sound and morally-upright decisions that will benefit all. More often, however, selection is determined by several factors, including “free birth, wealth, and merit” (152). Aristotle suggests that the selection should always be conducted by the majority, although it is important to note Aristotle’s restricted view of who should be included in that number.

On the opposite side of the coin of kingship is tyranny. Aristotle categorizes three types of tyranny. The first and second types, called plenipotentiary monarchy (so-called because it is applied to those countries dominated by what Aristotle refers to as “barbarians”) and dictatorship (156). In both these types, dictators are elected, and subjects are willing followers. In the third type, the ruler has absolute power over dissenting subjects.

The best forms of government emphasize the middle class. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle describes virtue as the mean between two vices. For example, generosity is sandwiched between reckless spending and miserliness. For the philosopher, the mean always represents the true good. In Politics, the middle class is presented as the mean between the lower and upper classes, therefore solidifying it as the class that has the most virtue to provide for the benefit of all. This aligns with the theme Politics as a Pathway for Good and Happiness. Aristotle views the city as an extension of human nature. If a happy medium is what contributes the most to individual good, then it is the model for organizing a government. The wealthy or overly-talented struggle with arrogance and stubbornness. The poor can be cruel and are ignorant in how to rule. The middle class presents the best opportunity for reasonable decision-making that considers all perspectives. For this type of constitution to be successful, most people in a city must be in support.

Aristotle concludes by defining the three types of power which exist within any constitution. The first—“deliberative” power—is a power that belongs to all citizens and deals with matters such as war and peace and the enactment of laws. The second type—“executive” power—refers to the systems of offices that serve various functions for a city. The third type—“judicial” power—refers to the courts of law.

Throughout Book 4, Aristotle explains that there is no such thing as a pure form of government in existence. However, the philosopher believed that knowledge about politics had a practical advantage. It encouraged cities to build systems of government that would support a more virtuous life. Book 4’s disjointed and scattered approach leads many scholars to believe that the sections may not have been published in the order Aristotle originally wanted and calls into question the authorship of various sections. Like Nicomachean Ethics, Politics is comprised of Aristotle’s lecture notes. The philosopher is forthright in his support for aristocracy but provides little evidence for its placement at the top of the political hierarchy. Aristotle’s dismissal of forms of government which amplify lower social classes contributes to the theme Political Hierarchies as Natural Forms of Subjugation. However, Aristotle’s approach to defining and expanding upon each constitution based upon collected data was unique and expansive: The typology of regimes described in the book continues to be utilized to evaluate and discuss contemporary forms of government.