Plutarch's Lives, Vol. 1

Nonfiction | Biography | Adult | Published in 100

A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.

Download PDF

Chapters 7-9Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Chapter 7 Summary: “Solon”

Plutarch begins by describing Solon’s family and their background. Solon comes from a very important Athenian family that traces its descent from Codrus, the last king of Athens. Early in life, Solon travels widely, either to advance his learning or to earn money through trade for his family, who have fallen on hard times. During his early travels, Solon studies philosophy and writes poetry. He also becomes acquainted with the philosophers Anacharsis and Thales. In one anecdote, Thales tries to convince Solon that it is best not to marry and have children by tricking Solon into thinking that his son has died. Thales then notes Solon’s grief, saying that that is the reason he does not have children.

Solon eventually returns to Athens and begins his political career. He helps the Athenians win Salamis from Megara—there are different accounts of how he achieved this. However, there is still a lot of sedition in Athens. Some of this is due to the rebellion of a man named Cylon, who tried to overthrow the state when Solon was still a boy. Athens’ economy is also in a bad state because debt slavery has become very common, with poorer people often selling themselves into enslavement to pay back their loans. The people of Athens ask Solon to become sole ruler so that he can fix their problems, but Solon refuses the office of sole ruler: He does not want to become a tyrant. Still, Solon is willing to be a lawgiver and promises to give Athenians the best laws he believes they can receive.

Plutarch describes Solon’s constitutional and social reforms, including his forgiveness of all debts and his abolition of debt slavery. This does not make everybody happy: The rich are angry that they will not receive the money they are owed, while many poor people are angry that Solon did not redistribute property as well. Solon also tries to reform the earlier laws established by Draco, whose punishments were extremely harsh. Solon makes Athens’ legal system more humane. Through his laws, Solon tries to improve and regulate Athenian morals. Solon puts his laws into writing with the “Tables of Solon.” Solon also expands trade to support the growing population of Attica.

After completing his reforms, Solon makes the Athenians commit to his laws for 100 years. He then goes abroad for 10 years so that the Athenians cannot pressure him to change his laws. He visits Egypt (where he studies the story of Atlantis), helps build a city-state on Cyprus, and tries to teach the Lydian king Croesus about the meaning of true happiness.

During Solon’s absence, however, sedition in Athens gets worse. Different leaders emerge for the different factions. The leader of the poorest faction—the “Hill Party”—is Solon’s relative Pisistratus. Pisistratus is an effective speaker and, some time after Solon’s return, he takes control of Athens, much to Solon’s horror. Gradually, Pisistratus assumes the role of a tyrant. Feeling that he has done all he could for Athens, Solon resolves to withdraw from public life, though he does eventually agree to council Pisistratus and even approves of some of his policies. Solon begins writing a poem about Atlantis, believing that this story can teach the Athenians something. He dies in his old age, though when exactly he died—and how long after Pisistratus seized power—is disputed.

Chapter 8 Summary: “Poplicola”

Poplicola (usually spelled “Publicola”) was originally called Publius Valerius; the name “Poplicola” was added later to honor him. After Tarquin, the last king of Rome, is removed from power, Poplicola hopes to be elected as one of the first consuls, the chief officials of the newly-founded representative democracy known as the Roman Republic. When he is not elected, he is disappointed and withdraws from public life, though he still declares his loyalty to the Republic and his opposition to the Tarquins.

Tarquin, meanwhile, tries to sow discontent and sedition in Rome so that he can return to power. He sends envoys to Rome, and Poplicola convinces the Romans to hear them out. Tarquin soon gets two important Roman families on his side, the Aquillii and the Vitellii, who plot to murder the consuls Brutus and Collatinus. An enslaved person named Vindicius learns of the plot, but he is reluctant to go straight to Brutus and Collatinus because the Aquillii and Vitellii are closely related to them. He finally decides to go to Poplicola, who is known for his wisdom and discretion. Poplicola sees to it that justice is done swiftly, finding evidence against the traitors and having them executed, even though the sons of Brutus and Collatinus are among those implicated in the plot.

The people grow more and more suspicious of Collatinus because of his relationship with the Tarquins, and he is eventually forced to leave Rome. Poplicola is elected consul. He confiscates the former property of the Tarquins and gives it to the Roman people. Tarquin, still wanting to resume power in Rome, seeks aid from the Etruscans and gathers an army. In one engagement, Tarquin’s son Aruns and the consul Brutus kill each other. The first engagement is indecisive, but in a second battle, the Romans beat the Etruscans and take many of them prisoner. Poplicola returns to Rome with the spoils and becomes the first Roman general to celebrate a Triumph.

Now the sole consul, Poplicola embarks on a program of political and legal reform, emphasizing policies that enhance the people’s liberty, including rules about appeals, taxes, and fines. Meanwhile, Tarquin is preparing to invade Rome once again with his Etruscan allies. He tries to get back a golden chariot he had made to be placed on top of the temple he was building for Jupiter on the Capitol. The Romans, however, keep the statue, and the new temple is completed. Some of the Romans begin to envy Poplicola and see to it that the honor of dedicating the temple falls to his co-consul Horatius instead of him.

Tarquin recruits the Etruscan ruler Lars Porsenna to help him invade Rome yet again. Poplicola builds a fortified colony called Sigliuria in an attempt to resist Porsenna, but Porsenna forces the inhabitants back to Rome. The Romans manage to prevent Porsenna from taking Rome, though both consuls are injured during the battle. Porsenna besieges Rome but is impressed by the heroism of Romans such as Mucius Scaevola and Cloelia. He eventually agrees to peace terms with Poplicola, one of the conditions being that Tarquin will leave Rome alone.

After a few quiet years, Poplicola is elected consul for a fourth time and fights against the Sabines and Latins. Poplicola meddles in Sabine politics, assisting Attius Clausus and making him a Roman citizen (renamed Appius Claudius). Poplicola successfully defends Rome against a Sabine siege. He dies soon after his victory over the Sabines. He receives a public funeral and is mourned for a full year.

Chapter 9 Summary: “The Comparison of Poplicola with Solon”

In his comparison of Poplicola and Solon, Plutarch reflects that Poplicola was the happier of the two, as he died with his legacy intact, while Solon lived to see his constitution undermined by Pisistratus. Plutarch compares the policies of the two men, noting that both had a strong sense of justice and introduced legislation to enhance the citizens’ liberties. Poplicola, however, was a more accomplished general than Solon.

Chapters 7-9 Analysis

Solon and Poplicola, like Lycurgus and Numa, are lawgivers and reformers. Both demonstrate The Role of Leadership and Morality in Public Life, and both embody many of the qualities that define Plutarch’s idea of a good leader—qualities such as honesty, justice, and intelligence. Solon’s reforms in Athens, for instance, are directed at providing equal justice to all citizens of Athens without favoring one faction over other factions. Poplicola’s legislation, similarly, aims at improving civil liberties in Rome.

Solon and Poplicola clearly want the best for the people they govern. This does not mean, however, that Solon and Poplicola are unaware of the weaknesses of their respective people. Plutarch records that when Solon was asked “if he had left the Athenians the best laws that could be given, he replied, ‘The best they could receive’” (115)—a reply that suggests that the Athenians’ own weaknesses and vices would have prevented them from receiving the “best laws that could be given.” Similarly, Poplicola finds that he must deal with the prejudices and fickleness of the Roman people throughout his political career. In one story recounted by Plutarch, the Romans even suspect Poplicola of aspiring to kingship because his house is too big—an occasion Poplicola uses to demonstrate his magnanimity by tearing down his large house and moving into a smaller one.

Solon and Poplicola also provide Plutarch with opportunities to reflect on The Universality of Human Nature. In particular, Plutarch’s anecdotes about the travels of Solon seek to cast light on meaning and happiness in human life. The story of Solon’s meeting with Thales, for instance, leads Plutarch to reflect that “it is irrational and poor-spirited not to seek conveniences for fear of losing them” (110), while Solon’s meeting with Croesus illustrates that a person cannot be judged happy unless they have died happy. By this definition, Plutarch notes in his Comparison of Poplicola with Solon, it is telling that Poplicola seems to have died happier than Solon: Poplicola died celebrated by his people and with his reforms firmly in place, while Solon lived to see his relative Pisistratus undermine his central policies.