On War

Marie Sophie von Brühl (1779-1836) was a German Countess, patron of the arts, and the wife of Carl von Clausewitz. She edited and published her husband’s works after his death in 1831.

Born in Warsaw, Marie von Brühl took care of her younger siblings and her sister’s child after the latter passed away from childbirth. Throughout her life, Brühl was a painter and supported the arts. She was a lady-in-waiting for the queen dowager Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt, Princess Charlotte of Prussia, and Princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. During the Napoleonic Wars, she also volunteered as a nurse.

Meeting Clausewitz, who was of lower social status, in 1803, Brühl married him in 1810. King Frederick William III of Prussia permitted their marriage to take place. The couple did not have children. However, the two are believed to have had a strong intellectual bond. When Carl von Clausewitz died in 1831, Brühl went on to edit and publish her husband’s works, including On War. She died in 1836.

Alexander I (1777-1825) was Russia’s Emperor (or Tsar) between 1801 and 1825. He was generally a conservative ruler at home, although he focused on some reforms, such as that of the legal system. In foreign policy, he is best known for a successful turnaround after the 1812 Napoleonic invasion of Russia.

International relations dominated Alexander’s reign. In the early 1800s, he was on good terms with all the major players in Europe, including France, Britain, Prussia, and Austria. However, Napoleonic expansionism deteriorated the power balance. In 1805, the Russo-Austrian troops lost to France. France also defeated Russia after Alexander attempted to aid Prussia after its 1806 loss to Napoleon.

For a time, Russia adhered to Napoleon’s Continental System and signed the Treaties of Tilsit. The 1812 invasion of Russia had Napoleon marching to Moscow, which was abandoned. He never received a peace offer and the harsh winter conditions contributed to the suffering of the retreating Grande Armée, in addition to the pursuit by the Russian troops and peasant insurgency.

In 1813, Alexander helped establish the sixth coalition comprising Prussia, Austria, Russia, Britain, German states, Portugal, and Sweden to defeat the French by 1815. He participated in the postwar diplomacy at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). Alexander I formed the Holy Alliance (1815) between Europe’s conservative states Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which lasted for several decades.

The Russian ruler’s choice of deep retreat and ultimate victory after Napoleon’s success of marching all the way to Moscow serves as one of the detailed case studies for Clausewitz. The author himself was a participant in first the Russian Army and then the coalition against Napoleon.

Frederick II, or Frederick the Great (1712-1786), was a Prussian King and military campaigner. He belonged to the Hohenzollern dynasty. During his reign, Prussia acquired additional territories and became an important political and military power in Europe.

At a young age, Frederick focused on philosophy and music. However, after he took over as a ruler from his father, Frederick William I, he demonstrated a propensity for military pursuits. The King reformed the military. Frederick’s troops also successfully fought in Silesia. Prussia took part in the First Partition of Poland in 1772 and annexed the Polish provinces in the north. Ultimately, Prussia became an important political player in the late 18th century.

In addition to military prowess and foreign policy, Frederick focused on the domestic situation and reformed his state bureaucracy. Prussia at this time also displayed a level of religious tolerance within the broader context of the Enlightenment.

Until 1772, Frederick held the title “the King in Prussia.” Afterward and until his death, he was the King of Prussia. Clausewitz uses Frederick the Great throughout this book to examine his actions in different battles.