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AristotleNicomachean Ethics
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Book 4 Summary
In Book 4, Aristotle further examines other virtues and non-virtues. He begins with generosity, which is sandwiched between the two vices of ungenerosity and wastefulness. The generous person takes money from the right places and gives liberally. A wasteful person, however, takes money from any source to enable a habit of constant spending. An ungenerous person, on the other hand, hoards money. Aristotle suggests that when a person begins to dip into the vices of generosity, that person experiences pain. He suggests that pain is a tool the individual uses to direct action toward good. Aristotle then examines the virtue of magnificence, which he states is dependent upon generosity. Magnificence refers to doing something great with one’s life, and that greatness is often interlinked with generosity and wealth.
Similarly, magnanimity is also tied to greatness. Magnanimity describes a person who “thinks himself worthy of great things and is really worthy of them” (66). Aristotle defines the qualities of a magnanimous person as openness and a lack of concern about what is popular. The magnanimous person avoids flattery and depends upon truthful friends.
The virtue of meekness or calmness exists between vices that Aristotle states are nameless, but he likens them to the extremes of being too passionate and easily angered and being too lacking in anger when anger would be an appropriate response. This meek state is not independent of anger, because anger is necessary and right if it is directed in the correct direction. The vices that it is centered between are exhibited in anger at the wrong things, extreme anger, and numbness. Similarly, friendliness operates between vices for which Aristotle does not have precise names, but this virtue requires the individual to interact with others in a way that avoids both flattery and combative behavior. Truthfulness functions between bragging and self-deprecation.
Each virtue functions as the mean, a balance between two extremes. Aristotle asserts that “good” is about doing things the right way and finding balance. In the example of wit, the vices involve a fool who constantly tries to make people laugh and a boor who finds no humor in life; wit lies between the two. Although he determines that shame is not properly described as a virtue, it functions similarly to the virtues because it helps “check” human behavior. People will exercise self-control to avoid the sense of shame.
Book 5 Summary
Book 5 is concerned with the concept of justice. Aristotle poses several questions about justice and the role it plays in both virtue and happiness. He presents the exploration of justice as a series of mathematical equations and conditional statements. For example, he suggests that because a person who breaks the law is considered unjust, following the law must be a just action. Aristotle poses that justice is a virtue in opposition to the extremes of injustice. It is also the only virtue that assists others in achieving good for themselves.
Every unjust action can be tied to another vice or the extreme of another virtue. Justice comes in many forms and contributes to the common good. Justice is also voluntary. Aristotle suggests that justice is about equality, and he presents a set of equations intended to prove this hypothesis. Another conditional statement connects fairness and justice. The virtue of justice rectifies, meaning that it helps set things right and re-establish the order of fairness and equality.
Justice is also a type of exchange; it is reciprocal, and a just society is predicated upon a series of just and equal exchanges. He uses money as an example of this type of fair exchange; society establishes standards that equate an amount of currency to the value of an item.
Although individuals can suffer injustice, it is not always born of an unjust action. Aristotle examines political injustice to understand the role that feeling plays in justice: Sometimes the same action, depending on the feeling behind it, can be considered either just or unjust. As with other virtues, justice is achieved through voluntary action. Another way to look at this is in terms of intention. The intention behind an action determines whether it is just or unjust. This explains how a person can commit an injustice without being unjust. Although the law is just, rulers are just only when they are ruled by reason and seek equality for all people.
Aristotle closes by posing several puzzles regarding justice and injustice. For example, he wonders whether it is possible for a person who suffers injustice to do so with a willing heart. He concludes that the blame for injustice is always upon the person who enacts or distributes it. Aristotle then argues that doing what is right and just is not easy. It is not always clear how certain actions can produce injustice, nor is it easy to control one’s feelings and states that might inform unjust acts. The decent person is one who acts upon just actions and “takes less than he might” (99).
Book 6 Summary
While the previous books focus on virtues of character, Book 6 explores virtues of thought. Aristotle suggests that the soul can be divided into two parts: the rational and the non-rational. Reason, also, can be divided into two sections: “the scientific part, and the other the rationally calculating part” (102). Aristotle says that these sides of reason are virtues within themselves, as evidenced by their outcomes or functions.
One of these virtues of thought deals with both desire and decision. Aristotle asserts that because virtue is about action, or right decision, desire that is good is based in virtuous reason. Aristotle shows that virtue interplays with thought; decisions that are based in rational thinking produce an outcome of good. To be virtuous, thought must be followed by actions that direct the individual toward the magnetic pole of truth.
Aristotle then discusses states of the soul; he proposes throughout the book that states are different from virtues, although they inform decisions. He explores several states of being and attempts to define their qualities. Each of these states is a branch of reason. Scientific knowledge, for example, requires one to know scientific principles. It does not, however, mean that the individual understands what those principles point toward; the individual may not yet understand how the principles contribute to a conclusion. While scientific knowledge is about knowing information, craft is about products.
Aristotle devotes much of the chapter to the state of prudence. The modern definition of prudence signifies cautiousness in one’s wise judgment, but Aristotle’s meaning is the state of thinking through decisions and how they affect both the individual and others. Understanding differs from knowing in that it moves beyond merely having memorized scientific principles, for example; understanding requires the individual to have a complete grasp of the subject. Understanding is the space where scientific knowledge, craft, and prudence meet. Wisdom is even deeper than these levels. Wisdom enfolds all the elements of reason and adds honor to them, so that wisdom is a complete understanding of honorable things.
Good deliberation and comprehension require reason for effectiveness. Good deliberation requires correctness, and comprehension is learning. Consideration is a state of “correct judgment of the decent person” (112). Aristotle suggests that the virtues of thought make up the parts of a person’s soul.
Books 4-6 Analysis
Much of Aristotle’s understanding of ethics and goodness is about the balancing of the scales. The theme of Finding Balance in Virtue is prevalent in these three books. Aristotle begins by exploring virtues of character, such as generosity, friendliness, and truthfulness. Each virtue is associated with corresponding extremities called “vices.” Later, he shows how this spectrum of action makes it difficult to always choose the right action. This challenge is also influenced by the impact of pleasure and pain, as vices often have extremes in both qualities.
It is important to note that all the virtues of character are positioned in how they relate to other people; this foreshadows Aristotle’s later point about The Importance of Friendships for Good. The philosopher proposes that pain provides information to individuals about whether they are committing to virtue or vice. For example, the virtue of generosity is sandwiched between reckless spending and miserliness. When one begins to lean too far in one direction, pain informs the individual, pushing that person back toward the center. One way to think about this scenario is by imagining two children playing on a playground. One child calls his playmate a mean name but then witnesses the impact of the injustice when he sees sadness come across his playmate’s face. This causes the child who spoke to feel a measure of pain, which serves as an indicator that the child dipped too far into the realm of vice. Pain serves as an alarm, reminding people when they veer too far in one direction. This reflects Aristotle’s theme of balance. Rather than viewing pleasure or pain as innately good or bad, he acknowledges them as tools that balance one another and provide valuable information about where people are in pursuit of their goal of happiness.
Aristotle also expounds on the virtues of magnificence and magnanimity. Each of these virtues speaks to the subjects of honor and greatness. Again, it is important to note the historical context of the work and the influence of the period’s moral universe on Aristotle’s modes of thinking. In ancient Greek culture, honor was extremely important and formed the basis of identity. Thus, in this context, virtues that are strongly tied to others’ perceptions, such as magnificence and magnanimity, are central concerns. Later philosophical works may emphasize other indicators of goodness, such as quiet lives and selflessness. Understanding the position of Aristotle’s theories within their cultural and historical framework clarifies his decisions and thinking. Concepts such as magnificence, magnanimity, honor, and bravery were central to how one was perceived and lived in his era.
The philosopher also explores the concept of justice in this section. Again, he promotes balance. For Aristotle, justice is the only virtue that helps others outside the self to achieve good and happiness. This again hints at the theme The Importance of Friendships for Good. Serving and living a life of justice encourages others to also live their best lives. It enables others to have the opportunity to reflect, repent, and contemplate.
Then Aristotle begins to look at other types of virtue: virtues of thought. At this point in the work, Aristotle has not yet identified what he views as the supreme pathway for happiness, as outlined in the theme The Meanings of Good and Happiness. However, his approach to virtues of thought indicates his direction. Aristotle points to virtues like scientific knowledge and wisdom as being of a higher level of virtue than the virtues of character. As a philosopher and scientist, himself, Aristotle thoroughly enjoys thought and contemplation. He knows that these pursuits bring him happiness and proposes that they will do the same for others. These views correspond with the following section, in which Aristotle hails contemplation as the prime virtue that leads to happiness.
Although Aristotle’s views on religion diverge slightly from the accepted views of his time, he does speak about the gods and divinity. In his view, virtues draw humans closer to the gods, and vices move them closer to their baser animalistic instincts. Virtues of thought are as close to godlike as humans can get and are, therefore, “choice-worthy,” a term Aristotle uses to indicate actions that lead to good. The vices discussed in the next book reveal his thoughts about how vice connects to animalistic natures. Like other concepts, Aristotle views these animalistic tendencies on a spectrum that requires one to attain balance between two extremes.
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