Life of Black Hawk

Nonfiction | Autobiography / Memoir | Adult | Published in 1833

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Pages 1-34

Pages 35-51

Pages 51-71

Pages 72-98

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Black Hawk War

The Black Hawk War of 1832 was an armed conflict between the United States and a group of Sauk, Meskwaki (Fox), and Kickapoo men led by Sauk war leader Black Hawk. The group was also known as the “British Band” due to their alliance with the British. The war occurred in the Illinois and Michigan territories and was the culmination of Indigenous resistance to white settlement in the region. In 1832, Black Hawk led a group of warriors along with a significant number of Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo men, women, and children across the Mississippi to reclaim his Indigenous Sauk land east of the river. The advent of the tribe concerned the white settlers and galvanized the US army, state militias who were convinced about an upcoming attack to the settlements.

By 1832, several people of the Sauk tribe had relocated west of the Mississippi to avoid violent confrontation with the United States. The leader of the group that had accepted removal was Ke-o-kuck, an unofficial leader of the tribe who had participated in the War of 1812 against American expansion and often spoke in negotiations with the government. Black Hawk, a war leader, was in charge of the oppositional group that resisted removal and resolved to remain and defend his homeland if necessary. Black Hawk allied with White Cloud and Neapope, the dissident Sauk chiefs, and led their people back to their homeland.

The war officially started when US militia fired against a delegation of Sauk who were sent to negotiate peace. As a response, Black Hawk led a successful attack against the militia, resulting in their panicky retreat known as the Battle of Stillman’s Run. Black Hawk continued with raids against nearby settlements to find provisions and sustain his people. The war continued with the Battle of Wisconsin Heights, when exhausted and destitute Sauk and Fox people tried to escape the war, crossing the Mississippi. The final Battle of Bad Axe, termed a massacre of Sauk and Fox peoples, terminated the war. The tribes weakened by hunger and lack of provisions were defeated, and most were killed or captured. Black Hawk and certain leaders had escaped during the battle but eventually surrendered. Black Hawk remained imprisoned for a year. The war reinforced the relocating Indigenous tribes and the Sauk had to abandon their village and move west of the Mississippi.

Sauk/Sac People

The Sauk or Sac people are an Algonquian-speaking Indigenous American nation that lived originally in Green Bay, Wisconsin. The French first encountered the Sauk in 1667. Today, the nation has three federally recognized tribes along with the Meskwaki (Fox) tribe in Oklahoma, Kansas, and Iowa.

During the summer, the tribe lived in villages and had its own cultivations, primarily corn fields. In the winter, the tribe was separated into family groups, and in spring the hunters gathered to hunt bison. The tribe’s structure was patrilineal, and patrilineal clans were responsible for traditional ceremonies and naming. The tribe had hereditary chiefs and war leaders of equal power during times of conflict.

By the 19th century due to colonial pressure, the tribe settled across the Mississippi in present day Rock Island, Illinois. With the Treaty of 1804, the tribe ceded most of its homeland to the United States and the government pressured the tribe to move west of the Mississippi. After the end of the Black Hawk War and the defeat of their resistance, the tribe was gradually forced to cede more land. The Sauk moved to Iowa, Kansas, and, ultimately, Oklahoma.

Treaty of 1804

The 1804 Treaty of St. Louis was an official agreement between the United States government and the Sauk and Fox tribe. The negotiation was settled between military officer William Henry Harrison and a delegation of five Sauk and Fox representatives. According to the treaty, the tribe ceded a large land area between the Mississippi and the Illinois Rivers, including their homeland, the Sauk village, for monetary compensation and an annual payment. The treaty was a key factor in the culmination of the Black Hawk War. Black Hawk and the tribe contested the validity of the treaty, arguing that the delegation was not authorized to represent the tribe in the negotiations. Black Hawk also contested the means by which the Sauk men were made to sign the treaty. The treaty instigated Black Hawk’s distrust toward the United States government and his subsequent resistance. It also encouraged Black Hawk to support the British in the War of 1812.

War of 1812

The War of 1812 was an armed conflict between the United States and Great Britain along with their Indigenous allies. A prolonged conflict between the two sides about territorial expansion and Great Britain’s decision to impose restrictions on the United States’ sea trade led to the outbreak of the war. Most Indigenous American tribes supported the British, hoping that with British victory they would secure their tribal lands as American settlers were already advancing into Indigenous lands. The United States experienced several defeats during the war, but ultimately prevailed over the British in New York, New Orleans, and Baltimore. As both parties wanted peace, negotiations began in 1814 and concluded in the Treaty of Ghent. The war did not officially end until 1815. It had a profound impact on Indigenous tribes as it opened the way to the United States’ westward expansion.