Culture and Anarchy: An Essay in Political and Social Criticism

Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1869

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Summary

Background

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Preface-Introduction

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6-Conclusion

Key Figures

Themes

Index of Terms

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

Background

Historical Context: The Victorian Era

The Victorian Era (1837-1901) is named after the reign of Queen Victoria, the ruling monarch of England and its wider empire during that time period. Over the course of the Victorian Era, England underwent radical and significant transformations politically, economically, and culturally.

Politically, England had risen to be the dominant world power, boasting the largest empire the world had ever seen. England’s extensive reach from Canada to India and beyond gave it enormous influence and prestige on the world stage while also reinforcing the stability of the monarchy under the long-lived Victoria. There were also important political changes occurring at home within England’s borders with the rise of what Matthew Arnold refers to in Culture and Anarchy as the “Populace” (see: Index of Terms): the lower- and working-class English subjects, who increasingly flocked to urban centers in search of work in the many factories springing up. The growing working-class portion of society began to form trade unions and agitate for significant political reforms, such as extended suffrage (i.e., the right to vote) and greater protections for laborers. Working-class demands for fairer employment conditions, better political representation, and easier access to education all created unique political pressures in what had traditionally been a political establishment dedicated to protecting the interests of the upper classes.

Economically, England’s use of new technologies, such as the steam engine and the mass-production capabilities of the factories, brought enormous wealth to the country. The ones who benefited most from the Industrial Revolution were the business-minded middle class, who found success in the areas of production and trade. When Arnold decries the pernicious influence of “mercantilism” upon English culture, he attributes its dominance to the growth of the middle class and its attendant values of money-making and pragmatism above all else.

Culturally, England saw significant changes in the production and consumption of media. Rising literacy rates created far larger reading audiences than had existed in the past, which in turn created a major market for newspapers, periodicals, books, and magazines. The novel became the dominant literary form, with writers such as Charles Dickens first publishing their works in serialized form on a weekly or monthly basis before later publishing them as a book. In Culture and Anarchy, Arnold regards the media boom with some skepticism, arguing that reading the newspapers will not necessarily help a man or woman to access true culture.

Culture and Anarchy therefore appeared at the height of the Victorian Era, with many of Arnold’s thematic concerns reflecting the dynamic and rapidly changing times in which he lived. Arnold’s attitude is often cautious and conservative, with Arnold advocating for only gradual change and demonstrating a consistent mistrust of the more democratizing impulses at play politically and socially.

Religious Context: Protestantism, Catholicism, Atheism

There were two broad strands of Christianity in England during the Victorian Era: Protestantism and Catholicism. Many tensions and religious controversies erupted during the Victorian Era and were often tied to some of the widening rifts within and between Christian denominations.

Anglicanism was the official state religion of England, with the monarch as the nominal head of the Church of England. While Anglicanism had begun as a Protestant movement under King Henry VIII in the 16th century (see: “Anglican Church” under Key Figures), it was by no means the only Protestant denomination. Over the centuries and throughout the Victorian Era, numerous Protestant denominations sprung up, each with its own theological interpretations and dogma. The rise of “Nonconformist” Protestant denominations caused particular trouble for the Anglican establishment during Arnold’s lifetime, as the Nonconformists rejected the idea of church hierarchies and agitated for wider religious reforms. In Culture and Anarchy, Arnold regards the Nonconformist challenges to traditional religious authority and the Biblical literalism of the more radical Protestant sects as troubling, believing that both tendencies undermine the stability necessary for true culture.

Catholicism in England had undergone a period of repression from the 16th century onwards, with many monarchs regarding Catholic subjects with suspicion. Since Anglicanism and its Church of England was born from a rupture with the Pope’s authority, Catholics were often accused of having divided loyalties. Restrictions on Catholics endured for many centuries, such as limiting their right to hold political office even once practicing their religion was no longer a crime. The tensions between Anglicanism and Catholicism became even more marked during the Victorian Era in the political case of Ireland. Although one of the dominions of the British Crown, the majority of the native Irish population remained Catholic. The enduring influence of Catholicism in Ireland led to significant discrimination against Irish subjects and became a politically charged force for Irishmen who advocated for independence from Great Britain.

Finally, there was another challenge to Anglicanism in the form of agnosticism and atheism. Charles Darwin’s publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859 was a milestone in scientific thought, advancing the theory of evolution. Darwin’s theories were widely regarded as a serious challenge to the traditional Christian worldview, undermining traditional beliefs in God and the biblical account of a seven-day period of creation. Darwin’s theories were accompanied by the rise of materialist theories more generally, with thinkers such as Karl Marx attempting to explain the world’s social, economic, and political workings in strictly non-religious terms. Overall, these theoretical trends brought more visibility to agnostic and atheistic worldviews, giving them a newfound legitimacy that challenged the religious establishment.

The tense and dynamic religious environment of the Victorian Era exercises considerable influence upon Arnold in Culture and Anarchy. While Arnold does not openly address the more atheistic strands of thought appearing in his own day, he does advocate for the importance of religious establishments and hierarchies, believing them essential for nurturing true culture. Furthermore, while Arnold’s own religious views appear moderate, he makes it clear that true culture is filled with “worthy notions of reason and the will of God” (155, emphasis added), thereby emphasizing the influence of traditional Christianity in his own cultural conceptions.