A History of Western Philosophy

Empiricism is the philosophy that all knowledge derives from experience, particularly sense experience. Empiricism was particularly popular in Britain, where it was the dominant philosophy in the 17th and 18th centuries. Russell contrasts it with idealism (see entry below).

Idealism refers to the philosophical theory that something nonmaterial (such as mind or spirit) is the ultimate basis of reality, or that the object of external perception consists of ideas. Russell characterizes idealism as the dominant philosophy in Germany during the modern period and as, to a certain extent, opposed to empiricism. He considers empiricism and idealism as the two major strands of philosophy influencing modern thought.

Called by Russell the “philosophy of logical analysis” (828), logical positivism (also known as logical empiricism) is the school of thought that is the subject of the final chapter of the book. A representative 20th-century philosophy, logical positivism is characterized by the view that the only meaningful philosophical problems are those which can be solved by logical analysis. Logical positivism thus rejects metaphysical questions—such as the existence of God—as unsolvable, closely allying philosophy with science instead.

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy dealing with first principles, such as being, existence, and God. Most, if not all, of the philosophers in A History of Western Philosophy concerned themselves with metaphysical questions, often as a prelude to other branches of philosophical speculation.

Plato’s Academy—sometimes known simply as “the Academy”—refers to the philosophical school founded in Athens in the 4th century BCE by Plato. The Academy became hugely influential as both the blueprint for other ancient philosophical centers of learning and as the prototype for modern universities. The Academy endured for many centuries, until its final closure by the Emperor Justinian in the year 529.

Scholasticism refers to the body of philosophy and theology current in the Middle Ages (and later) which attempted to synthesize Christian doctrine with classical Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotle. The term “scholasticism” reflects the fact that this form of thought was taught in the medieval universities. Russell uses the term “schoolmen” to refer to the thinkers who espoused scholasticism, such as St. Thomas Aquinas.

The Socratic Method is attributed to Socrates, the teacher of Plato and one of the founders of the Western philosophical tradition. The Socratic Method seeks true knowledge through dialogue and the posing of a series of questions, via which ideas and principles can gradually be discerned. The Method is used to expose and interrogate beliefs and assumptions that are based on erroneous principles. The Socratic Method is of central importance in many of Plato’s philosophical dialogues, such as the Republic.

Substance is a term of metaphysics that underlies much philosophical thought from the ancient Greeks onward. Aristotle characterizes substance as that which does not depend on anything else for its existence, which supports qualities or properties and exists independently of them. Russell criticizes the overreliance of many philosophers on the concept of substance, which he regards as unhelpful.

A syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning, in which new knowledge can be drawn through building upon what is already known to be true. In a typical syllogism, two true statements are used to create a third statement that will also be true. The most common and famous example of a syllogism is the logical deduction demonstrated from combining the two statements, “All men are mortal” and “Socrates is a man,” to reach the concluding third statement, “Therefore, Socrates is mortal.”

Teleology is the study of the final cause or purpose in nature, or the belief that purpose and design are a part of nature. Teleology underlies the work of Aristotle and other classical and medieval philosophers, but Russell, as a logical positivist, rejects the search for a higher purpose as unscientific.

The term “utopia” derives from the Latin term literally meaning “no place.” In philosophy and literature, a utopia usually refers to an idealized state that represents the highest possible good and the best possible society for mankind. Utopias appear in such famous works as Plato’s Republic and Sir Thomas More’s Utopia, in which the philosophers express their political and ethical ideals through describing an imaginary, perfect state.