58 pages • 1 hour read
Karen ArmstrongA History of God: The 4000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1993A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Part 4Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Part 4, Chapter 6 Summary: “The God of the Philosophers”
In the 9th century, an intellectual renaissance flourished within the Islamic world, similar to Europe’s later Renaissance and Enlightenment. This awakening was largely catalyzed by the Arabs’ exposure to Greek science and philosophy. Nestorian Christians, serving as translators, played a pivotal role in translating Greek works into Arabic, bringing numerous scientific and intellectual advancements to the Abbasid empire.
A significant outcome of this era was the emergence of the Faylasufs, Muslims deeply inspired by Greek metaphysics. Unlike their Greek Christian counterparts who hesitated to integrate Hellenistic logic into theological matters, the Faylasufs ardently championed reason, arguing it embodied a heightened form of religiosity. They endeavored to align Greek philosophical principles with Islamic teachings, contending that the God spoken of by Greek philosophers was equivalent to al-Lah in Islamic thought. Their efforts aimed to distill the universal truth present across all religious traditions.
Among these thinkers, Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi stood out, marrying philosophical concepts with Islamic beliefs. On the other end of the spectrum, Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakaria ar-Razi adopted a more radical stance, dismissing both Aristotelian logic and certain Koranic perspectives. The Faylasufs, despite their groundbreaking contributions, encountered limitations in gaining widespread acceptance due to their elitist approach.
Al-Farabi, another pivotal figure from this era, exhibited mastery across varied domains including philosophy, medicine, music, and mysticism. His work, Opinions of the Inhabitants of a Virtuous City, underscored how Prophet Muhammad mirrored Plato’s notion of an ideal ruler. Additionally, his inclination toward Aristotelian and Plotinian philosophies led him to conceive an eternal hierarchy of beings, starting with inanimate matter and culminating in humanity, touching upon divine Reason.
By the mid-10th century, a tapestry of esoteric Islamic interpretations, notably Falsafah, Sufism, and Shiism, began to weave itself, enriching the understanding of religious truths. The Ismaili sect within Shiism wove Zoroastrian myths and Neoplatonic ideologies into their doctrine, crafting a unique perspective of salvation history.
Ismaili batinis pursued a deeper comprehension of religious texts, looking beyond literal interpretations. This search for a hidden (batin) understanding, named tawil, mirrored the harmonious layers in music, emphasizing simultaneous, multilayered interpretations. Notably, thinkers like Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani proposed understanding God through a series of negations, aiming to spotlight God’s indefinability. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) notably expanded upon Falsafah, introducing it to a changing religious landscape. His unique stance posited prophets as possessing superior knowledge due to their innate comprehension of God, yet reason held its own place in fathoming God’s essence.
With time, the idea of God in Islamic mysticism and philosophy evolved, as exemplified by the transformative journey of al-Ghazzali. Beginning with a rigorous exploration of religious truth, his journey culminated in a personal crisis, after which he veered toward Sufism, valuing personal religious experiences and the palpable existence (wujud) of God. This shift in focus was indicative of a broader movement where the philosophical understanding of God was progressively overshadowed by a more mystical perspective.
Parallel to Islamic thinkers, Jewish philosophers in the Islamic realm crafted their own philosophical tapestries, integrating religious teachings. Saadia ibn Joseph, Solomon ibn Gabirol, and Bahya ibn Pakudah notably modified Neoplatonism to fit within Jewish paradigms. Later, figures like al-Ghazzali critiqued foundational elements of Kalam, Ismaili doctrines, and Falsafah. In the face of such critiques, Ibn Rushd (Averroës) fervently attempted to rekindle philosophical exploration, striving to harmonize it with traditional Islamic piety.
By the time of the Crusaders, an aggressive form of Christianity emerged, deepening the chasm between Muslims, Jews, and Christians. This chasm, however, did not prevent the exchange of philosophical ideas, evident in the writings of thinkers like Duns Scotus Erigena and Anselm of Canterbury, both of whom grappled with the nature of God through dialectical and rational methods respectively.
Part 4, Chapter 7 Summary: “The God of the Mystics”
The concept of a personal God has been foundational to Judeo-Christian traditions and has significantly influenced Western liberal humanism. Initially, Yahweh was anthropomorphized, exhibiting human emotions and behaviors. Over time, this God came to symbolize the ultimate transcendence and what is fundamentally unknowable. The personal God, while highlighting human dignity and the sacredness of individual life, has its challenges. A personal God can easily become an idol, mirroring human biases and perpetuating complacency. Furthermore, ascribing gender to God can distort human perceptions of sexuality.
Despite the centrality of a personal deity, all three monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) have, at different points, recognized its limitations. They have fostered mystical traditions that stress the importance of moving beyond a human-like deity to experience the divine as an impersonal cosmic reality. This evolution was not about disengagement from the world but an internal contemplation and experience of God beyond human characteristics and linguistic confines. Contemporary society’s inclination toward myths and mysticism hints at a desire for a profound connection beyond mere logical understanding.
Jewish mysticism showcases early rabbis, such as Rabbi Akiva, delving deep into divine mysteries, particularly Ezekiel’s vision of God’s chariot, known as the “Study of the Chariot” (Ma’aseh Merkavah). The Talmud narrates the perilous spiritual journeys of four rabbis to God’s throne, underscoring the dangers of delving too deep into the mind without guidance. Such mystical journeys symbolize an ascent through the psyche, aiming to reach the divine.
Comparatively, Muhammad’s Night Journey depicts an ascent through seven heavens where he encountered symbols indicating the divine, but not God Himself directly. St. Augustine, too, described a spiritual ascent he shared with his mother, emphasizing introspection to achieve a transcendental state beyond standard knowledge.
Greek Christian mysticism introduced hesychia, or inner silence, aiming to experience God’s “energies.” Notable figures like Evagrius Pontus and Diodochus of Photice suggested methods resembling Christian Yoga and emphasized that deification can be realized in the present. They underscored the unity of body and soul in prayer, contrasting with Western perceptions. Greek religious art, especially icons, acted as contemplative portals to divinity. Debates arose about the legitimacy of representing Christ in icons, with figures like John of Damascus asserting its validity post-Incarnation. Symeon, the “New Theologian,” emphasized that God should be experienced rather than defined.
Sufism, the mystical Islamic tradition, emerged as a movement emphasizing intense love for God. Foundational figures, such as Abu Yazid Bistami and Al-Junayd, emphasized the balance between union with God and retaining human essence. Sufism’s approach resonated with Christian “deification” concepts. Al-Junayd presented Sufism as a return to humankind’s primordial relationship with God. However, as with all mystical approaches, tensions arose with established religious structures, leading to severe repercussions for figures like Al-Hallaj. By the 12th century, thinkers like Suhrawardi integ’ated Sufism with wider Islamic philosophy. Suhrawardi’s The Wisdom of Illumination combined disparate elements like science, mysticism, and philosophy. Ibn al-Arabi, another pivotal figure, believed in the divine’s presence in all things and warned against religious intolerance.
Sufism’s rise during the 12th and 13th centuries paralleled socio-political upheavals, leading many to seek a more immediate divine experience. Sufi orders like the Mawlawiyyah utilized dance for spiritual concentration. Rumi’s poetry conveyed the mystical view of God, emphasizing diverse paths to divine understanding. Concurrently, European Jews, influenced by societal pressures, sought deeper spiritual connections. The Kalonymos family’s writings merged Islamic, Christian, and Jewish influences. German Pietists promoted Christian-like asceticism, whereas in the Islamic empire, Kabbalah took root. Kabbalists employed imagination to explore God’s inner life, distinguishing between the unknowable “En Sof” and the revealed God. Through symbolic representations like the sefiroth tree, Kabbalists emphasized humanity’s limited understanding of the divine. Their approach preferred mythological insights over metaphysical discussions.
Part 4 Analysis
In the canvas of the 9th-century Islamic intellectual renaissance there is an intertwining of Greek philosophy with religious teachings. The human endeavor to harmonize reason and faith is once again present, illustrating that this quest is not just a modern one but has much older roots. One illustration of this tendency is the Faylasufs, the Muslim scholars who ardently championed reason while still remaining grounded in faith. Their belief that the God of Greek philosophy was not at odds with their understanding of al-Lah embodies a broader sentiment of seeking commonality in the midst of apparent differences, reflecting their acceptance of Religion as a Universal Human Experience.
The works and philosophies of individuals such as Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, and Avicenna depict the evolving nature of belief, assimilating foreign concepts and maintaining the core essence of traditional religious tenets. Al-Ghazzali’s journey is particularly emblematic: His progression from an exploration of religious truth to a Sufi introspection reflects the broader movement in Islamic thought––a drift from a more rigid, philosophical comprehension of God to a more fluid, mystical, or embodied connection. Jewish philosophers in the Islamic realm, such as Saadia ibn Joseph and Solomon ibn Gabirol, also integrated their own religious teachings with Greek philosophy, as did the Christian theologians Duns Scotus Erigena and Anselm of Canterbury. Armstrong paints a dynamic era where borders between philosophy and theology were porous, and the nature of God was explored with both fervor and introspection.
The journey from an anthropomorphic understanding of God to a more abstract, impersonal entity frames the narrative. The mystics across all three monotheistic religions grappled with the challenge of God’s nature, seeking to transcend the limitations of language and human cognition. Their journeys, such as Rabbi Akiva’s exploration of Ezekiel’s vision or Muhammad’s celestial Night Journey, epitomize the quest to touch a divinity beyond human definition. This mystical exploration was not about renouncing the world but about fostering a more profound connection with the divine. Sufism, with its emphasis on an all-consuming love for God, and Christian mystics with their emphasis on inner silence and experiencing God’s energies, sought experiences beyond traditional religious structures. The endeavors of figures like Ibn al-Arabi and Rumi underline this, advocating for a vision of God that is pervasive, immanent, and yet transcendent.
Armstrong continues to emphasize socio-political and cultural contexts, reflecting The Influence of Social Change on Religious Beliefs. The intertwining of Greek philosophy with Islamic teachings in the 9th-century intellectual renaissance, the synthesis of Jewish teachings with Greek thought, and the impact of these dialogues on European thinkers all reflect an intricate web of mutual influence and changing socio-cultural contexts. This underlines a critical aspect of comparative religion: that religions and their philosophies are not monolithic entities but are shaped, in part, by cross-cultural exchanges. Instead of treating religions as isolated systems of beliefs, Armstrong presents them as part of a broader family of human spiritual endeavor, where different threads—reason, faith, mysticism, and philosophy—interweave to form a complex and dynamic picture of humanity’s relationship with the divine.
